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part V
further information and reference material
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annexes
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ANNEX A: ENERGY UNITS, CONVERSION FACTORS, AND ABBREVIATIONS
TABLE A1. ENERGY CONVERSIONS*
Megatonne
oil (equiv)
(Mtoe)
Million British
thermal units
(Mbtu)
Terajoule
(TJ)
Gigacalorie
(Gcal)
Gigawatt-hour
(GWh)
To :
From:
Multiply by:
2.388 x 10 -5
Terajoule (TJ)
1
238.8
947.8
0.2778
4.1868 x 10 4
10 7
3.968 x 10 7
Megatonne oil (equiv) (Mtoe)
1
11,630
1.0551 x 10 -3
2.52 x 10 -8
2.931 x 10 -4
Million British thermal units (Mbtu)
0.252
1
8.6 x 10 -5
Gigawatt-hour (GWh)
3.6
860
3,412
1
* IEA figures. Additional conversion figures available at http://www.iea.org/stat.htm
TABLE A2. UNIT PREFIXES
TABLE A4. UNIT ABBREVIATIONS
kilo (10 3 )
k
EJ
Exajoule
mega (10 6 )
M
GJ
Gigajoule
giga (10 9 )
G
Gtoe
Giga tonnes oil equivalent
tera (10 12 )
T
GWe
Giga Watt electricity
peta (10 15 )
P
exa (10 18 )
GWth
Giga Watt thermal
E
ha
Hectare
km 2
Square kilometre
TABLE A3. ASSUMED EFFICIENCY
IN ELECTRICITY GENERATION
(FOR CALCULATING PRIMARY ENERGY)
kWh
Kilo Watt hour
Mtoe
Million tonnes oil equivalent
Type of power
Assumed efficiency
MWe
Mega Watt electricity
Nuclear power
. 33
PJ
Petajoule
Hydroelectric
1.00
t
Tonne
Wind and solar
1.00
TWh
Tera Watt hour
Geothermal
.10
456
WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY
Annex A: Energy Units, Coverstion Factors, and Abbreviations
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ANNEX B: DATA CONSISTENCY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work and is measured in joules
(J), where 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 newton (N) is
applied through a distance of 1 metre. (A newton is the unit of force
that, acting on a mass of one kilogram, increases its velocity by one
metre per second every second along the direction in which it acts.)
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred and is commonly
measured in watts (W), where 1 watt is 1 joule per second. Newton,
joule, and watt are defined in the International System of Units. Other
units used to measure energy are tonnes of oil equivalent (toe; 1 toe
equals 41.87 x 10 9 J) and barrels of oil equivalent (boe; 1 boe equals
5.71 x 10 9 J), used by the oil industry; tonnes of coal equivalent (tce;
1 tce equals 29.31 x 10 9 J), used by the coal industry; and kilowatt-
hour (kWh; 1 kWh equals 3.6 x 10 6 J), used to measure electricity.
See also annex A, which provides conversion factors for energy units.)
Studies on national, regional, and global energy issues use a variety
of technical terms for various types of energy. The same terminology
may reflect different meanings or be used for different boundary
conditions. Similarly, a particular form of energy may be defined
differently. For example, when referring to total primary energy use,
most studies mean commercial energy —that is, energy that is traded
in the marketplace and exchanged at the going market price. Although
non-commercial energy is often the primary energy supply in many
developing countries, it is usually ignored. Non-commercial energy
includes wood, agricultural residues, and dung, which are collected
by the user or the extended family without involving any financial
transaction. Because there are no records and a lack of data on actual
use, most energy statistics do not report non-commercial energy use.
Estimates of global non-commercial energy use range from 23-35
exajoules a year. In contrast, wood and other biomass sold in the
marketplace is reported as solids (often lumped together with coal)
and becomes part of commercial energy.
Traditional energy is another term closely related to non-commercial
energy. This term generally refers to biomass used in traditional ways—
that is, in the simplest cooking stoves and fireplaces—and is often meant
as a proxy for inefficient energy conversion with substantial indoor and
local air pollution. But traditional does not always mean non-commercial:
wood burned in a kitchen stove may have been bought commercially
and be reflected in commercial data. Estimates of biomass used in
traditional ways range from 28-48 exajoules per year.
The term modern (or new ) renewables is used to distinguish
between traditional renewables used directly with low conversion
technology and renewables using capital-intensive high-tech energy
conversion such as solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, or ocean
energy to produce state-of-the-art fuels and energy services.
Another issue concerns the heating value of chemical fuels assumed
in statistics and analyses. The difference between the higher heating
value (HHV) and the lower heating value (LHV) is that the higher heating
value includes the energy of condensation of the water vapour contained
in the combustion products. The difference for coal and oil is about
5 percent and for natural gas 10 percent. Most energy production
and use are reported on the basis of the lower heating value.
Yet another source of inconsistency comes from different conversion
factors to the primary energy equivalent of electricity generated by
hydropower, nuclear, wind, solar, and geothermal energy. In the past,
non-combustion-based electricity sources were converted to their
primary equivalents by applying a universal conversion efficiency of
38.5 percent. More recently, hydropower, solar, and wind electricity
in OECD statistics are converted with a factor of 100 percent,
nuclear electricity with 33 percent, and geothermal with 10 percent.
The quality of data differs considerably between regions.
Statistical bureaus in developing countries often lack the resources
of their counterparts in industrialised countries, or data are simply
not collected. Countries of the former Soviet Union used to have
different classifications for sectoral energy use. Data reported by
different government institutions in the same country can differ
greatly, often reflecting specific priorities.
The composition of regions also varies in statistical compendiums
and energy studies. At times, North America is composed of Canada
and the United States—but it might also include Mexico. Except where
otherwise noted, the following countries joined the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1961: Australia
(1971), Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic (1995), Denmark,
Finland (1969), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary (1996), Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Japan (1964), Korea (1996), Luxembourg, Mexico
(1994), the Netherlands, New Zealand (1973), Norway, Poland
(1996), Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United
Kingdom, the United States. Depending on when the data was collected,
OECD data may or may not include the Czech Republic, Hungary, the
Republic of Korea, Mexico, or Poland.
Finally, a word on the efficiency of energy conversion. Energy
efficiency is a measure of the energy used in providing a particular
energy service and is defined as the ratio of the desired (usable)
energy output to the energy input. For example, for an electric
motor this is the ratio of the shaft power to the energy (electricity)
input. Or in the case of a natural gas furnace for space heating,
energy efficiency is the ratio of heat energy supplied to the home to
the energy of the natural gas entering the furnace. Because energy
is conserved (the first law of thermodynamics), the difference
between the energy entering a device and the desirable output is
dissipated to the environment in the form of heat. Thus energy is not
consumed but conserved. What is consumed is its quality to do
useful work (as described by the second law of thermodynamics).
What this means is that a 90 percent efficient gas furnace for space
heating has limited potential for further efficiency improvements.
While this is correct for the furnace, it is not the case for delivering
space heat. For example, a heat pump operating on electricity
extracts heat from a local environment—outdoor air, indoor
exhaust air, groundwater—and may deliver three units of heat for
one unit of electrical energy to the building, for a coefficient of
performance of 3. Not accounted for in this example, however, are
the energy losses during electricity generation. Assuming a modern
gas-fired combined cycle power plant with 50 percent efficiency, the
overall coefficient of performance is 1.5—still significantly higher
than the gas furnace heating system.
457
WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY
Annex B: Data Consistency
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ANNEX C: ENERGY TRENDS
TABLE C.1. PRIMARY ENERGY USE PER CAPITA BY REGION, 1971–97
Annual
growth rate,
1990–97
(percent)
Annual
growth rate,
1971–97
(percent)
Change,
1990– 97
(percent)
Change,
1971– 97
(percent)
1971
(gigajoules)
1980
(gigajoules)
1985
(gigajoules)
1990
(gigajoules)
1997
(gigajoules)
Region
North America
266
276
258
263
272
3.7
2.4
0.5
0.3
Latin America
36
42
39
40
47
15.4
27.7
2.1
3.6
OECD Europe a
118
134
134
137
141
3.3
19.9
0.5
2.6
Non-OECD Europe b
76
108
112
108
84
-21.8
10.6
-3.4
1.5
Former Soviet Union
135
178
192
195
129
-33.9
-4.2
-5.7
-0.6
Middle East
35
61
72
77
95
23.9
175.9
3.1
15.6
Africa
23
26
27
27
27
0.1
17.1
0.0
2.3
China
20
25
28
32
38
18.8
93.6
2.5
9.9
Asia c
15
17
19
21
26
18.9
66.3
2.5
7.5
Pacific OECD d
94
113
117
142
174
23.2
85.1
3.0
9.2
World total
62
69
69
70
70
-0.1
12.5
0.0
1.7
Memorandum items
OECD countries
Transition economies
Developing countries
161
124
20
177
165
25
173
177
27
181
180
29
194
121
34
7.0
-32.4
16.0
20.4
-2.0
66.2
1.0
-5.4
2.1
2.7
-0.3
7.5
a. Includes Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. b. Excludes the former Soviet Union. c. Excludes China. d. Includes Republic of Korea. Source: IEA, 1999a.
TABLE C.2. ELECTRICITY USE PER CAPITA
BY REGION, 1980–96 (KILOWATT-HOURS)
TABLE C.3. ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION
LOSSES BY REGION, 1980–96 (PERCENT)
Region
Region
1980
1985
1990
1996
1980
1985
1990
1996
North America
8,986
9,359
20,509
11,330
North America
6.9
6.8
7.0
7.6
OECD
5,686
6,277
7,177
8,053
OECD
7.6
6.8
7.2
6.4
East Asia
243
314
426
624
East Asia
8.4
8.8
8.2
10.1
South Asia
116
157
228
313
South Asia
19.4
19.1
18.8
18.7
Sub-Saharan Africa
444
440
448
439
Middle East
485
781
925
1,166
Sub-Saharan Africa
9.2
8.6
8.8
9.6
China
253
331
450
687
Transition economies
8.4
8.9
8.4
11.0
Transition economies
2,925
3,553
3,823
2,788
Least developed
countries a
Least developed
countries a
11.0
15.8
20.3
20.9
74
66
60
83
World
8.3
8.0
8.3
8.5
2,027
a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999.
World
1,576
1,741
1,927
a. As defined by the United Nations. Source: World Bank, 1999.
458
WORLD ENERGY ASSESSMENT: ENERGY AND THE CHALLENGE OF SUSTAINABILITY
Annex C: Energy Trends
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